cHoCoLaTe....... yuMMyyyy!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Chocolate has been called an antidepressant, tonifier, stimulant, euphoriant, and even aphrodisiac.

What is chocolate in reality?

Chocolate is a mixture of cocoa paste, cocoa butter, and sugar. Nowadays, we know its precise chemical composition. It is considered as a complimentary food, since all three organic substances exist (although not well balanced): carbohydrates (starch, diverse sugars), fats (cocoa butter), and vegetable proteins. Minerals can also be found in chocolate: potassium and magnesium in large amounts, calcium and sodium in small amounts, and iron in trace amounts. Chocolate also contains vitamins A1, B1, B2, D, and E.

History of chocolate

The history of chocolate is almost as interesting as the confection itself. In its native South America, chocolate was prepared in drinks reserved for royalty and high ranking members of society. When European explorers visited, they were introduced to chocolate, and upon bringing the food back to Europe, it became a big hit. Eventually, Europeans started exploring with their chocolate, adding sugar and other ingredients and ultimately developing a process which would allow them to make bars in addition to chocolate drinks. With the development of bar chocolate, confectioners realized that chocolate had a wide range of possibilities, from candy bar coating to truffles, and the once rare luxury turned into an extremely profitable global industry.

Making of chocolates

Making chocolate is a time consuming process. Cacao plants are grown on plantations in South America, where the plant is native, and in parts of Africa. There are actually several varieties of cacao plant, all of which produce chocolates with slightly different flavours, and the flavour is also impacted by where the chocolate is grown, how it is handled after harvest, and how it is processed. Chocolate companies invest a great deal of money in developing ideal blends of cacao beans to create the flavours their consumers are used to.Cacao beans grow in large pods which are harvested once they ripen and then allowed to ferment. Initially, the cacao beans are extremely bitter; the fermentation process softens the bitterness, allowing producers to move on the next steps, roasting and hulling. Roasting helps to develop the flavour of the beans, while shelling exposes the cacao nibs, the portion of the bean which has the entire flavour.Once press cake has been created, producers have a number of options. To make cocoa, they can squeeze the press cake even more to isolate the cocoa solids before allowing it to dry and then pulverizing it. They can also blend some of the cocoa butter back in, along with sugar and other ingredients, to produce eating chocolate, which is subjected to a process called conching to create a smooth, creamy confection without any traces of grittiness. Eating chocolate can also be adulterated with milk, creating milk chocolate, and the level of sweetness can vary widely. For white, chocolate cocoa butter is mixed with vanilla and milk.

Making chocolate today

Today’s chocolate production results from process and manufacturing technology improvements made over many years. The traditional way of manufacturing chocolate is to take the beans [from the cacao pod] and ferment them after harvesting to remove the bitterness. They are then thoroughly dried. Next they are roasted to expose the inside, which is called the nib. Various bean nibs are blended together to obtain the flavour desired and then ground up. The resulting paste, called cocoa mass is the heart and soul of chocolate’s flavour. The cocoa mass is enhanced with sugar, bars were actually marketed about 1850 by an Englishman, Joseph Fry. Of course we all know chocolate is an “international food” and now we are beginning to see why. Everyone helped make it what it is today. In the mid 19th century (about 1879) the Swiss chemist, Henri Nestle & Rodolphe Lint [also Swiss] develop a process called “conching”, a procedure that enhances both texture and flavour. The result was a smooth chocolate, replacing the rough and grainy products made up to then. Swiss chocolate became the world standard for the chocolate bar then and there. Conching is both a lengthy and costly procedure. Today some chocolate is made [of inferior quality] where the cocoa butter is replaced with a synthetic substitute, and “conching” replaced with the addition of soy lecithin[for smoothness]. The good news is that by law, a product that is madewithout cocoa butter, cannot be labelled as chocolate.

High energy in tiny squares

Considering its ingredients, chocolate has exceptional nutritional qualities. It is, therefore, a high-energy food in relatively small volume; athletic people are among those who eat chocolate regularly , since it offers rapidly available energy. It is considered a food for effort whether intellectual or physical. What, however, is accurate concerning its other attributed mentioned above?

The benefits of chocolate

The pharmaco-dynamic substances (those whose action is similar to medications) found in chocolate are responsible for its reputation concerning its abilities. Four of these such substances can be found in chocolate: theobromine, caffeine, phenylethylamine, and serotonin. They appear in a negligible quantity, but each in infinitely small quantities plays an important role. Theobromine stimulates the central nervous system, facilitates muscular efforts, as well as having diuretic and cardiotonic action. It is an orexigan (appetite stimulator). Caffeine increases resistance towards fatigue, favorises intellectual activity, and increases watchfulness. Concerning phenylethylamine, it has a chemical structure similar to amphetamines and therefore contains psycho-stimulating properties. Serotonin, on the other hand, is a neurotransmitter (substance freed by the nerve endings) in the cerebral cortex--its quantity is often found to be lower during certain nervous depression states. The serotonin found in chocolate helps correct its initial loss. Likewise, the caffeine and saccharose stimulate the body's stimulation of serotonin. Finally, due to the pleasure it offers, chocolate stimulates endorphin secretion thus procuring naturally the same effects as opium. With this description of chocolate's chemical composition, it's never-ending list of vertues are easily explained.

pERfuMES...?????????

Early Use of Perfume

There has always been a trade in scents and by the year 2008 perfume had become a $10 billion industry. Today women have fragrance wardrobes of at least six different perfumes, rather than a single signature perfume, keeping one special perfume for occasion moments.People have used perfume, oils and unguents on their bodies for thousands of years in lesser or greater amounts dependant on fashion whims. The early Egyptians used perfumed balms as part of religious ceremonies and later as part of pre love making preparations. Myrrh and Frankincense were exuded gums from trees used to scent the atmosphere in rituals. Other plants such as rose and peppermint were steeped in oils until a perfumed unguent formed. The unguent was then rubbed into the skin. It's interesting to note that perfume has come full circle today as more and more of us seek out high quality aromatherapy perfumed oils to use in exactly same way as our ancestors did.Products that enhance the feel of skin and the smell of the body have been highly valued in every culture. Trade routes introduced spices to other parts of the world and a wider range of scents could be made. In the past people often mixed their own potions using home methods creating their own aromatherapy products. Many homes had a still room where essences were steeped out of flowers and herbs. Left - Lavender field in Grasse France.Perfume fell out of use during early Christianity, but was revived in the medieval period. By the 1600s scents were applied to objects such as furniture, gloves and fans. In the Georgian Era non greasy eau de cologne was developed and it had many uses from bath essence to mouthwash.

Chemical Advances in Perfumery

The late 19th century was the first real era of perfume as we know it when new scents were created because of advances in organic chemistry knowledge. Synthetic perfume products were used in place of certain hard to find or expensive ingredients. At the same time a similar chemical knowledge development happened in textile printing dyes.Grasse in Provence, France became a centre for flower and herb growing for the perfume industry. The men who treated leathers in the same area found the smells so bad they perfumed themselves and the leathers. They were knowledgeable about making the botanical essences and were the early perfume noses. But it was only in the C20th that scents and designer perfumes were really mass produced. Before that, the few trade names that existed were Coty and Yardley who made fairly light scents with familiar smells.

What Is Perfume Made From?

Perfume is made from about 78% to 95% of specially denatured ethyl alcohol and a remainder of essential oils.Perfume is the costliest form of fragrance with 22% of essential oils.Eau de Parfum (EDP), comes next with between 15 and 22% essential oils.That's followed by Eau de Toilette (EDT) with 8 to 15% oils.The weaker Eau de Cologne has just 4% essential oils.For those who crave super subtlety Eau Fraiche with 1 to 3% essential oils, is the lightest dilution of fragrance.Many new perfumes are promoted as EDPs and an EDT is not always produced as there has been a vogue for Eau de Parfum as individuals want a more lasting signature.There are major fragrance categories - Floral, Oriental, Floriental, Chypre, Green Marine and Fruit. Typical plant products include anise, bay leaf, bergamot, cardamom, cedar wood, eucalyptus, frankincense, gardenia, geranium, iris, jasmine, lavender, lemon, lilac, lily, lily of the valley, magnolia, moss, neroli, orange, orris, patchouli, pine, raspberry, rose, sage, sandalwood, tuberose, vanilla, violet and ylang-ylang.

The memory of a scent left by violets.

Typical animal products used in perfume include musk from the male musk deer, ambergris from sperm whales, castoreum a secretion of the beaver and civet from the civet cat. All are used as fixatives and add an indefinable mystery to the smell at the same time.

Tips for Wearing Perfume

When you apply perfumes apply them to pulse points such as the folds in the crook of your elbow and back of knees, wrist, neck and cleavage. Make sure you do not rub wrists together as this crushes the smell. Spraying a little into the air is also good if you walk straight into the perfume. This helps to diffuse it over your body. Do not simply apply to the neck always work up the body as the scent rises. Also consider wearing in your bra a small ball of perfume impregnated cotton wool.Consider layering perfumes. Use all the same perfume in various products. Begin with shower or bath gel and then rub in body lotion or spray with a matching after bath spray. Finally apply the scent preferably as perfume or EDP. I find that the use of body lotion makes you feel really scented and it is probably to do with starting at the feet and applying the scent all over allowing the scent to rise. It also makes you feel extra special and very pampered.Keep bottles tightly stopped, away from direct heat and out of sunlight. You will certainly know when they have gone off as you'll notice that you do not get that lovely boost of heavenly scent when you spray or dab and the fragrance will look darker in the bottle. Some perfumes come in blue or opaque bottles and these store perfume well.Try to choose perfumes that suit you, not your friends or family. Test a perfume in a store and then walk around for a minimum of ten minutes. Some perfumes take more like half an hour or an hour to truly develop. For example, Boudoir by Vivienne Westwood, Jicky by Guerlain and Must de Cartier are all ones I love after an hour, but am not convinced on first sniff.Put a few drops of perfume onto an oil burner to scent your bedroom. At Christmas use musky oriental room fragrances in the form of perfumed incense sticks, candle or sprays to enhance the familiar associated yuletide seasonal smells of cinnamon, orange oil, pine, frankincense and myrrh.

Famous Early Perfumes

Chanel No 5Ernest Beaux created Chanel No. 5 for Coco Chanel in 1921. It has a floral top note of ylang-ylang and neroli, with a heart of blends of jasmine and rose all above a woody base of sandalwood and vetiver. Chanel believed women should wear perfume wherever they hoped to be kissed. Today Chanel No.5 sells a bottle every 30 seconds.In recent years Chanel No. 5 has been marketed as a spray with two refills in an effort to have it recognised as an essential everyday finishing touch rather than a precious scent to be used sparingly.Right - The hypnotic scent of roses.One of my favourites is Guerlain's Shalimar launched first in 1925 and relaunched in 2001. It's a refined oriental feminine fragrance with iris, vanilla, and rose. It has the wonderful Guerlain quality that never dates and always gets compliments. I still think it's one of the very best Guerlain perfumes. They are all particularly wonderful and each seems to develop with the individual. Maybe it really is because the secret ingredient called Guerlinade the X factor that is added to every new perfume bearing the Guerlain name, makes it smell like a truly sense hitting perfume unlike later unisex creations.In 1932 Dana made the exotic Tabu, Worth made the memorable Je Reviens which remained popular in the 50s and 60s and in 1934 Elizabeth Arden developed Blue Grass. All are still sold today. Later Molyneux and Schiaparelli and other designers produced exotic perfumes in direct competition with Chanel. Jean Patou launched Joy in 1935 and it was voted Scent of the 20th Century at the Fragrance Foundation FiFi awards 2000.1944 saw the introduction of Femme by Rochas. After the war lighter fresher perfumes by Dior and Balmain which could be worn easily by day became more and more popular with the middle classes. In 1947 Dior launched the ever popular Miss Dior. I still love these older perfumes such as Miss Dior and the wonderful lily Diorissimo.

Scents for Everyone

At this time the working classes still rarely used anything more exotic than the very early scents or the new perfumes produced by cosmetic houses rather than fashion design house couturiers.Some of the less costly perfumes had quite pleasing scents, but they had none of the cachet of Couture house names. Everyday prices meant that the ordinary person could afford to buy a perfume gift from ranges by Coty, Yardley, Max Factor and Revlon and not break the bank.Max Factor's Hypnotique and Primitif were very popular in the 1950s as was Tweed by Lentheric, and Coty's L'Aimant. Revlon scored great success with Intimate and Aquamarine. Intimate is still available on some Internet sites. Yardley's Lily of the Valley or French Fern bath salts and talc were always to be found in the Christmas stockings of the masses of working folk. Goya also produced scents in a price conscious range. Goya's Black Rose and Here's My Heart featured regularly in full page adverts. Many people still used 4711 Eau de Cologne, with its clean fresh smell.A 4711 roll on stick was especially popular for summer heat perspiration before air conditioning.From Woolworth's young teenagers bought Soir de Paris by Bourjois in its small blue bottle. They delighted in translating the French into Evening in Paris. Right - The ever popular rose and lilies of the valley.Perfume to the MassesThroughout the 1960s ordinary people began to buy perfume in quantity. People who had never been abroad before began to spend time browsing in perfume stores and buy perfume in duty free shops. They came home with bottles of Madame Rochas, Worth's Je Reviens, Carven's Ma Griffe, Arpège by Lanvin, Houbigant's Chantilly, Guerlain's Mitsouko and L'Heure Bleu, Calèche by Hermes, Sortilege, Ecusson and Estee Lauder's Youth Dew.Yves St. Laurent launched Y in 1964, Rive Gauche in 1968. Guy Laroche presented Fidji in 1966. Those old favourites Chanel No.5 and Miss Dior were still best sellers with considerable competition from products like Avon's perfume's such as Topaze, Coty's Imprevu and in total contrast, Faberge's earthy daytime Woodhue.

Perfumes for the 1970s

By 1977 Yves St. Laurent had put 'Opium' perfume into production and it was a huge huge success with women everywhere. It was definitely a perfume for sultry evenings. By contrast women enjoyed wearing perfumes like Nina Ricci's L'Air du Temps and Nina Ricci's orange based Bigarade was popular for a while. Ô de Lancôme, Lauder's Cinnabar, and Anais Anais by Cacharel in 1978 (the latter beloved by schoolgirls) were all well received.Revlon's Charlie was a top seller and the trouser wearing woman who wore it was portrayed as a woman at ease with herself at work and play. Avon perfumes were also popular as they were affordable, but interesting coming in huge sprays to dainty containers for perfumed wrist creams. Max Factor's Maxi was in a similar affordable everyday price range.Various musk based oils and scents at quite low prices flooded chemists shops. Aviance Night Musk by Prince Matchabelli was popular and affordable.

1980 Power Perfumes

Match Power DressersNew designer scents were marketed fiercely in the 80s and for the first time ever, blatant erotic advertising which generated enormous attention from the media led to the success of the 1985 Obsession campaign from Calvin Klein. Obsession with its heavy smell of vanilla was dominant in the market.
It was equally impossible to open a magazine or Sunday supplement without being overwhelmed by the scent of Giorgio Beverley Hills on a yellow and white striped sample strip. Eventually Giorgio was banned from restaurants because the smell was too dominant over food aromas. Image and a gimmick were a specialty of the 1980s and Jean Paul Gaultier put a perfume in a glass torso in a tin and continued to produce limited editions and variations of the designer package. Vanderbilt a refined oriental of carnation, rose and mimosa was put on the market in 1982 and was one of the more affordable attractive perfumes. Lou Lou launched in 1987 was a refreshing subtle change from the more oppressive oriental scents. Right - The intoxication of the heavy scent of lilie.
Some scents of the era like Yves St Laurent's wonderful rose with violets in Paris have become true classics. Sultry sirens found Givenchy's Ysatis and Guerlain's 1989 Samsara hard to beat. Champagne the perfume caused a court case in the champagne making industry and was eventually taken off the market under that name. It is now sold in similar packaging, but as Yvresse.

Fresher Marine Green 1990s and New Millennium Perfumes

The 1990s saw a whole new range of cleaner sharper scents which probably began with Estee Lauder's White Linen from the 1980s. Perfumes such as L'Eau d'Issey by Issey Miyake in 1992, Eternity and Dazzling all have a crisper scent. One refreshing oriental fragrance was Sun Moon Stars by Lagerfeld in 1994 and the earlier 1990 Safari by Ralph Lauren was set in one of the prettiest bottles to grace a dressing table. Organza by Givenchy in a great bottle, launched in 1996 has the smell of a long lost much loved scent and was in competition with the now very popular Allure from Chanel launched the same year.The century ended with softer scents such as Cristobal by Balenciaga or unisex perfumes such as CK One popular with urban fashion followers. In 1999 Cacharel launched Noa Noa. Now renamed simply Noa it is a rounded floral oriental that smells divine. New perfumes of the millennium include the lovely Kenzo Flower, Guerlain's Mahora, Calvin Klein's Truth, Rossellini's Manifesto, Lancôme's Miracle, Boucheron's Initial, YSL's Nu, Michaels Kor's Michael, Nina Ricci's Premier Jour and Vivienne Westwood's exotic tempting Boudoir.

Myths

A great deal of snobbery surrounds perfumes and they are often only considered worthwhile initially if expensive and very exclusive. But the consumer is not stupid however much the hype. If a scent smells unattractive on the individual the consumer will not buy it. The selection of perfumes that do smell wonderful is so great that no one has to wear the latest designer perfume if they hate the smell. Whilst many perfumes do succeed, just as many do not. The perfume has to be good and marketed properly to recoup initial development costs. Launching a new perfume costs between a half and a million pounds, so the scent has to match the mood of the era.The $10 billion market place is so overcrowded that to keep up with the consumer's desire for new scents and still keep mystique and a measure of exclusivity, design houses such as Dior, Guerlain and Lancôme are now producing limited edition perfumes for a few months only with bottles destined to become designer items. In 2001 Dior's limited edition perfume was called Remember Me, a lily fragrance.There is already a bottle collectors Internet trade for scent bottles with or without perfume.A great many individuals are now seeking out classic perfumes or specially blended oils. A classic is a perfume that has lasted a minimum of ten years and grown to be much loved.Some people also find that they sneeze quite violently when they wear modern perfumes. I include myself in this category and I've found that wearing the older perfumes designed more than 50 years ago seems to reduce the sneezing. It's also wonderful to rediscover some of the older perfumes and sense their depth, special individual quality and difference from the scents of today. If only manufacturers would stop tinkering with old favourites.This may be why many have gone back to purchasing 100% alcohol free perfume oils and mixing their own scents. You can get high quality oils easily online.

When to Buy Perfumes

Perfume is often sold in the run up to Christmas as a coffret set at a good price. So it's often possible to buy at an eau de parfum price and get a body lotion and a shower gel in pared down size thrown in for good measure all in one box. This is the ideal way to try a new fragrance without breaking the bank as you get to try the main products. Aware of the popularity of cocooning, some manufacturers are also adding matching candles.If you can bear to wait until January you will often find similar great offers at even lower prices. Always check the sell by date. Always ask the assistant if they have fragrance samples in the run up to Christmas or whenever you buy fragrance as that's when they are most likely to give them to you.A word of caution - some of us now think that some of these specially produced coffret products are not as good as they used to be and that the perfume smell is often less desirable a smell to our nostrils than the regular stock. Why do we think this - well we have had samples given, bought the coffret and then found that the smell was nothing like as wonderful as the sample. One perfume marketing man wrote to tell me that the samples we are offered at perfume counters are always of eau de parfum quality. This means we may get confused and not fully realise at the point of sale that the coffret contains eau de toilette plus gel and lotion, but at the price of eau de parfum. Hmmm...Let us know if you have experienced this too, we are curious to know if perfumes as opposed to butter mountains are being moved at Christmas!

ShAMpoooooooooooo.............

What is shampoo??

Shampoo is a type of cleaning agent that is used on hair. In most cases, the cleaning agent comes dissolved in a liquid. The liquid solution is massaged into wet hair, and creates a lather that breaks up deposits of oil and dirt. The lather is then rinsed from the hair after a few minutes, leaving the hair clean.Shampoos have a number of qualities that should be considered before use. How well a shampoo cleans is very important, and individual brands usually come in slightly different formulations for either “normal” or “oily” hair. The fragrance that a shampoo leaves in the hair is also a major consideration, and is why scented shampoos are so popular. Other factors often taken into account include how shiny the shampoo makes the hair, possible irritation of the scalp, toxicity, price, if organic ingredients have been used, and whether or not the shampoo has been tested on animals.There are many different categories of specialty shampoos, with each type claiming to have properties beyond cleaning hair. A few of these categories are: lice killing shampoos that help get rid of lice infestations; anti-dandruff shampoos that often contain fungicides, chemicals that can assist in removing white flakes in hair; clarifying shampoos that remove hair-care product buildup; baby shampoos that are specially formulated to be gentle; thickening shampoos that purport to make hair fuller; straightening shampoos that make hair less curly; 2-in-1 shampoos that contain conditioners; and dry shampoos that can be used without water.Modern shampoo is not made out of traditional soap. Although earlier versions did use soap shavings, traditional soap-based shampoo made hair dull and irritated the scalp. Modern shampoo is formulated using chemicals and fragrances that balance the ability to clean hair with other factors including scalp irritation and superficial look. By leaving some oil in the hair, being slightly acidic, rinsing cleanly, and not irritating the skin, the chemical composition of modern shampoo has shown itself to be far superior to that of the soap-based original.

Raw Materials

New shampoos are initially created by cosmetic chemists in the laboratory. These scientists begin by determining what characteristics the shampoo formula will have. They must decide on aesthetic features such as how thick it should be, what color it will be, and what it will smell like. They also consider performance attributes, such as how well it cleans, what the foam looks like, and how irritating it will be. Consumer testing often helps determine what these characteristics should be. Once the features of the shampoo are identified, a formula is created in the laboratory. These initial batches are made in small beakers using various ingredients. In the personal care industry, nearly all of the ingredients that can be used are classified by the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association (CTFA) in the governmentally approved collection known as the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI). The more important ingredients in shampoo formulations are water, detergents, foam boosters, thickeners, conditioning agents, preservatives, modifiers, and special additives.

- Water

The primary ingredient in all shampoos is water, typically making up about 70-80% of the entire formula. Deionized water, which is specially treated to remove various particles and ions, is used in shampoos. The source of the water can be underground wells, lakes, or rivers.

- Detergents

The next most abundant ingredients in shampoos are the primary detergents. These materials, also known as surfactants, are the cleansing ingredients in shampoos. Surfactants are surface active ingredients, meaning they can interact with a surface. The chemical nature of a surfactant allows it to surround and trap oily materials from surfaces. One portion of the molecule is oil compatible (soluble) while the other is water soluble. When a shampoo is applied to hair or textiles, the oil soluble portion aligns with the oily materials while the water soluble portion aligns in the water layer. When a number of surfactant molecules line up like this, they form a structure known as a micelle. This micelle has oil trapped in the middle and can be washed away with water, thus giving the shampoo its cleansing power.Surfactants are derived from compounds known as fatty acids. Fatty acids are naturally occurring materials which are found in various plant and animal sources. The materials used most often to make the surfactants used in shampoos are extracted from coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and soy bean oil. Some common primary detergents used in shampoos are ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate, and sodium lauryl ether sulfate.

-Foam boosters

In addition to cleansing surfactants, other types of surfactants are added to shampoos to improve the foaming characteristics of the formulation. These materials, called alkanolamides, help increase the amount of foam and the size of the bubbles. Like primary detergents, they are also derived from fatty acids and have both water soluble and oil soluble characteristics. Typical materials include lauramide DEA or cocamide DEA.

-Thickeners

To some extent, the alkanolamides that make shampoos foam also make the formulations thicker. However, other materials are also used to increase the viscosity. For example, methylcellulose, derived from plant cellulose, is included in shampoos to make them thicker. Sodium chloride (salt) also can be used to increase shampoo thickness.

-Conditioning agents

Some materials are also added to shampoos to offset the sometimes harsh effect of surfactants on hair and fabrics. Typical conditioning agents include polymers, silicones, and quaternary agents. Each of these compounds deposit on the surface of the hair and improve its feel, softness, and combability, while reducing static charge. Shampoos that specifically feature conditioning as a benefit are called 2-in-1 shampoos because they clean and condition hair in the same step. Examples of conditioning agents include guar hydroxypropyltrimonium chloride which is a polymer, dimethicone which is a silicone, and quatemium 80, a quatemary agent.

-Preservatives

Since shampoos are made from water and organic compounds, contamination from bacteria and other microbes is possible. Preservatives are added to prevent such growth. Two of the most common preservatives used in shampoos are DMDM hydantoin and methylparaben.

-Modifiers

Other ingredients are added to shampoo formulas to modify specific characteristics. Opacifiers are added to make the formula opaque and give it a pearly look. Materials known as sequestering agents are added to offset the dulling effects of hard water. Acids or bases such as citric acid or sodium hydroxide are added to adjust the pH of a shampoo so the detergents will provide optimal cleaning.

-Special additives

One of the primary factors that influence the purchase of a shampoo is its color and odor. To modify these characteristics, manufacturers add fragrance oils and governmentally approved and certified FD&C dyes. Other special additives can also have a similar effect. Natural materials such as botanical extracts, natural oils, proteins, and vitamins all impart special qualities and help sell shampoos. Additives such as zinc pyrithione are included to address the problem of dandruff. Other additives are dyes which can color the hair.

The Manufacturing Process

After a shampoo formula is developed, it is tested to ensure that its qualities will minimally change over time. This type of testing, called stability testing, is primarily used to detect physical changes in such things as color, odor, and thickness. It canalso provide information about other changes, like microbial contamination and performance differences. This testing is done to ensure that the bottle of shampoo that is on the store shelves will perform just like the bottle created in the laboratory.The manufacturing process can be broken down into two steps. First a large batch of shampoo is made, and then the batch is packaged in individual bottles.

Compounding

1 Large batches of shampoo are made in a designated area of the manufacturing plant. Here workers, known as compounders, follow the formula instructions to make batches that can be 3,000 gal (11,000 1) or more. Raw materials, which are typically provided in drums as large as 55 gal (200 1) or in 50-lb (23-kg) bags, are delivered to the compounding area via forklift trucks. They are poured into the batch tank and thoroughly mixed.2 Depending on the formula, these batches can be heated and cooled as necessary to help the raw materials combine more quickly. Some raw materials such as water or the primary detergents are pumped and metered directly into the batch tank.These materials are added simply by pressing a button on computerized controls. These controls also regulate the mixing speeds and the heating and cooling rates. Depending on the size and type of shampoo, making a 3,000-gal (11,000-1) batch can take anywhere from one to four hours.

Quality Control

In addition to the initial checks to make sure the product meets specifications, other quality control checks are made. For example, line inspectors watch the bottles at specific points on the filling line to make sure everything looks right. They notice things like fill levels, label placement, and whether the cap is on correctly. The product is also routinely checked to see if there has been any microbial contamination. This is done by taking a bottle off the filling line and sending it to the QC lab. Here, a small amount of the shampoo product is smeared onto a plate and inoculated with bacteria and other organisms to see if they grow. Additionally, the packaging is also checked to see if it meets specifications. Things such as bottle thickness, appearance, and bottle weight are all checked.

User Contributions

The primary ingredient in all shampoos is water, typically making up about 70-80% of the entire formula. Deionized water, which is specially treated to remove various particles and ions, is used in shampoos. The source of the water can be underground wells, lakes, or rivers.The next most abundant ingredients in shampoos are the primary detergents. These materials, also known as surfactants, are the cleansing ingredients in shampoos. Surfactants are surface active ingredients, meaning they can interact with a surface. The chemical nature of a surfactant allows it to surround and trap oily materials from surfaces. One portion of the molecule is oil compatible (soluble) while the other is water soluble. When a shampoo is applied to hair or textiles, the oil soluble portion aligns with the oily materials while the water soluble portion aligns in the water layer. When a number of surfactant molecules line up like this, they form a structure known as a micelle. This micelle has oil trapped in the middle and can be washed away with water, thus giving the shampoo its cleansing power. Surfactants are derived from compounds known as fatty acids. Fatty acids are naturally occurring materials which are found in various plant and animal sources. The materials used most often to make the surfactants used in shampoos are extracted from coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and soy bean oil. Some common primary detergents used in shampoos are ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate, and sodium lauryl ether sulfate.

History of ice cream

The origins of ice cream can be traced back to at least the 4th century B.C. Early references include the Roman emperor Nero (A.D. 37-68) who ordered ice to be brought from the mountains and combined with fruit toppings, and King Tang (A.D. 618-97) of Shang, China who had a method of creating ice and milk concoctions. Ice cream was likely brought from China back to Europe. Over time, recipes for ices, sherbets, and milk ices evolved and served in the fashionable Italian and French royal courts. After the dessert was imported to the United States, it was served by several famous Americans. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson served it to their guests. In 1700, Governor Bladen of Maryland was recorded as having served it to his guests. In 1774, a London caterer named Philip Lenzi announced in a New York newspaper that he would be offering for sale various confections, including ice cream. Dolly Madison served it in 1812. First Ice Cream Parlor In America - Origins Of English NameThe first ice cream parlor in America opened in New York City in 1776. American colonists were the first to use the term "ice cream". The name came from the phrase "iced cream" that was similar to "iced tea". The name was later abbreviated to "ice cream" the name we know today.

Making of ice cream

There's nothing like a bowl of homemade ice cream with its cold, creamy texture balanced with that fresh taste. If you crave making your own homemade ice cream all you need is a good ice cream freezer, a great recipe, the best ingredients and these tips.

1. Be familiar with the directions of your ice cream maker prior to choosing a recipe.

2. Make sure ice cream base is cold before putting it in the machine. Refrigerating overnighty is preffered but at least an hour or two will suffice.

3. Chill ice cream machine bowl and dashers/beaters prior to adding the ice cream base. This depends on your ice cream machine model and make.

4. Only fill ice cream container 3/4 full. Air is incorporated while mixing the ice cream base and it will rise to the top of the container.

5. Fruit should be ripe prior to adding it to the ice cream base. Puree or mash at least half, if not all of the fruit, for a deeper fruit flavor. Adding a little fruit extract will also enhance the flavor.

6. Additives such as chocolate, cookies, whole fruit and/or nuts should be in small chunks and pre-frozen before adding to ice cream.

7. Don’t add those ingredients until the very end of mixing. This keeps them from sinking to the bottom of the container. Mixing by hand prior to putting in the proper freezer container is preferred.

8. Pre-chill or freeze container to be used for ice cream.

9. Place ice cream in freezer for a couple of hours prior to serving, if possible.

10. Allow the ice cream to sit at room temperature for 10 minutes prior to serving. Serve your ice cream in chilled bowls, preferably glass.

Structure of ice cream

Ice cream structure is both fascinating and confusing. The way we perceive the texture of ice cream when we consume it (smooth, coarse, etc.) is based on its structure, and thus structure is probably one of its most important attributes. Ice cream is both an emulsion and a foam. The milkfat exists in tiny globules that have been formed by the homogenizer. There are many proteins that act as emulsifiers and give the fat emulsion its needed stability. The emulsifiers are added to ice cream to actually reduce the stability of this fat emulsion by replacing proteins on the fat surface, leading to a thinner membrane more prone to coalescence during whipping. When the mix is subjected to the whipping action of the barrel freezer, the fat emulsion begins to partially break down and the fat globules begin to flocculate or destabilize. The air bubbles which are being beaten into the mix are stabilized by this partially coalesced fat. If emulsifiers were not added, the fat globules would have so much ability to resist this coalescing, due to the proteins being adsorbed to the fat globule, that the air bubbles would not be properly stabilized and the ice cream would not have the same smooth texture (due to this fat structure) that it has.

Effect of emulsifier on fat destabiization in ice cream 17KB

This fat structure which exists in ice cream is the same type of structure which exists in whipped cream. When you whip a bowl of heavy cream, it soon starts to become stiff and dry appearing and takes on a smooth texture. This results from the formation of this partially coalesced fat structure stabilizing the air bubbles. If it is whipped too far, the fat will begin to churn and butter particles will form. The same thing will happen in ice cream which has been whipped too much.

Ice Cream Meltdown

One of the important manifestations of ice cream structure is its melt-down. When you put ice cream in an ambient environment to melt (as in a scoop on a plate), two events occur; the melting of the ice and the collapse of the fat-stabilized foam structure. The melting of the ice is controlled by the outside temperature (fast on a hot day) and the rate of heat transfer (faster on a hot, windy day). However, even after the ice crystals melt, the ice cream does not "melt" (collapse) until the fat-stabilized foam structure collapses, and that is a function of the extent of fat destabilization/partial coalescence, which is controlled mostly by the emulsifier concentration, for reasons we have just described above.This is shown in the diagram below, which shows ice cream sitting on a mesh screen at ambient temperature:You can see above the increased amount of shape retention and slowness of melt that comes from the added emulsifiers, particularly polysorbate 80.

Structure from the Ice crystals

Also adding structure to the ice cream is the formation of the ice crystals. Water freezes out of a solution in its pure form as ice. In a sugar solution such as ice cream, the initial freezing point of the solution is lower than 0° C due to these dissolved sugars (freezing point depression), which is mostly a function of the sugar content of the mix. As ice crystallization begins and water freezes out in its pure form, the concentration of the remaining solution of sugar is increased due to water removal and hence the freezing point is further lowered. This process is shown here, schematically. This process of freeze concentration continues to very low temperatures. Even at the typical ice cream serving temperature of -16° C, only about 72% of the water is frozen. The rest remains as a very concentrated sugar solution. Thus when temperature is plotted against % water frozen, you get the phase diagram shown below. This helps to give ice cream its ability to be scooped and chewed at freezer temperatures. The air content also contributes to this ability, as mentioned in discussing overrun.Also critical to ice cream structure is ice crystal size, and the effect of recrystallization (heat shock, temperature fluctuations) on ice crystal size and texture. A primer on the theoretical aspects of freezing will help you to fully understand the freezing process. Please see the discussion and diagram on ice crystallization rate, as shown on that page, to fully understand this process. Recrystallization (growth) of ice is discussed elsewhere in the context of shelf life. Thus the structure of ice cream can be described as a partly frozen foam with ice crystals and air bubbles occupying a majority of the space. The tiny fat globules, some of them flocculated and surrounding the air bubbles also form a dispersed phase. Proteins and emulsifiers are in turn surrounding the fat globules. The continuous phase consists of a very concentrated, unfrozen solution of sugars. One gram of ice cream of typical composition contains 1.5 x 10exp12 fat globules of average diameter 1µ m that have a surface area of greater than 1 square meter (in a gram!), 8 x 10exp6 air bubbles of average diameter 70 µ m with a surface area of 0.1 sq. m., and 8 x 10exp6 ice crystals of average diameter 50 µ m with a surface area of another 0.1 sq. m. The importance of surface chemistry becomes obvious!

Microscopy

Before we leave ice cream structure, I want to draw your attention to the following address: "Foods Under the Microscope". This is a link to an absolutely marvellous website developed by my good friend Dr. Milos Kalab, with many high-quality images of the structure of milk and dairy products obtained during Dr. Kalab's long and outstanding career as a food microscopist with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada in Ottawa. Dr. Kalab asked me to contribute microscopic images of ice cream structure as a guest microscopist. You can find my (Doug Goff) first contribution under "Guest microscopists", and I have also copied it here. Subsequent to that submission, I have prepared another one for D. Kalab that focuses on the use of cryo-fixation and TEM for visualization of fat and air structures in ice cream. One of my graduate students, Alejandra Regand, also made a contribution, based on her M.Sc. thesis work, focussing on the structure of polysaccharides in frozen solutions.

cONdENseD mILk.......


Background

Evaporated and condensed milk are two types of concentrated milk from which the water has been removed. Evaporated milk is milk concentrated to one-half or less its original bulk by evaporation under high pressures and temperatures, without the addition of sugar, and usually contains a specified amount of milk fat and solids. This gives regular evaporated milk—the shelf life differs with the fat content—up to 15 months of shelf life. Condensed milk is essentially evaporated milk with sugar added. The milk is then canned for consumer consumption and commercial use in baking, ice cream processing, and candy manufacture. This product has a shelf life of two years. When concentrated milk was first developed in the mid-1800s before the advent of refrigeration, many used it as a beverage. However, with the exception of some tropic regions, this is rarely the case today.

Raw Materials



The primary ingredient is raw cow's milk. Evaporated and condensed milk processors purchase the milk from nearby dairy farms.
A salt, such as potassium phosphate, is used as a stabilizing agent, which keeps the milk from breaking down during processing. Carrageenan, a food additive made from red algae (Irish moss) is used as a suspending agent. The milk is also fortified with Vitamin D through exposure to ultraviolet light. Powdered lactose crystals are added to concentrated milk to stimulate the production of lactose, a type of sugar that increases the milk's shelf life.

Production

Raw milk is clarified and standardized, and then is heated to 85-90°C for several seconds. This heating destroys some microorganisms, decreases fat separation and inhibits oxidation. Some water is evaporated from the milk and sugar is added to approximately 45%. This sugar is what extends the shelf life of sweetened condensed milk. Sucrose increases the liquid's osmotic pressure, which prevents microorganism growth. The sweetened evaporated milk is cooled and lactose crystallization is induced.

The Manufacturing Process

• Evaporated milk
  1. The raw milk is transported from the dairy farm to the plant in refrigerated tank trucks. At the plant, the milk is tested for odor, taste, bacteria, sediment, and the composition of milk protein and milk fat. The composition of protein and fat is measured by passing the milk under highly sensitive infrared lights.
  2. The milk is piped through filters and into the pasteurizers. Here, the milk is quickly heated in one of two ways. The High Temperature Short Time method (HTST) subjects the milk to temperatures of 161 °F (71.6°C) for 15 seconds. The Ultra High Temperature (UHT) method heats the milk to 280°F (138°C) for two seconds.
  Both methods increase the milk's stability, decrease the chance of coagulation during storage, and decrease the bacteria level.
  3. The warm milk is piped to an evaporator. Through the process of vacuum evaporation, (exposing a liquid to a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure) the boiling point of the milk is lowered to 104-113°F (40-45°C). As a result, the milk is concentrated to 30-40% solids. Also, the milk has little or no cooked flavor.
  4. The milk is then homogenized by forcing it under high pressure through tiny holes. This breaks down the fat globules into minute particles, improving its color and stability.
  5. Pre-measured amounts of a stabilizing salt, such as potassium phosphate, are added to the milk to make it smooth and creamy. This stabilization causes the milk to turn a pale tan.
  6. The milk is passed under a series of ultraviolet lights to fortify it with Vitamin D.
  7. The milk is piped into pre-sterilized cans that are vacuum-sealed.

• Condensed milk
  1. The milk is flash-heated to about 185°F (85°C) for several seconds. It is then piped to the evaporator where the water removed.
  2. The milk is then concentrated under vacuum pressure until it measures between 30-40% solid. It now has a syrupy consistency.
  3. The milk is cooled and then inoculated with approximately 40% powdered lactose crystals. The milk is then agitated to stimulate crystallization. It is this sugar that preserves the condensed milk.
  4. The milk is piped into sterilized cans that are then vacuum-sealed.
  

Current use

Condensed milk is used in recipes for the popular Brazilian candy brigadeiro in which condensed milk is the main ingredient (the most famous condensed milk brand in Brazil is Moça mô:ssa, local version of Swiss Milch Mädchen marketed by Nestlé), lemon meringue pie, key lime pie, caramel candies and other desserts. In parts of Asia and Europe, sweetened condensed milk is the preferred milk to be added to coffee or sweetened tea. Many countries in South East Asia use condensed milk to flavour their coffee. A popular treat in Asia is to put condensed milk on toast and eat it in a similar way as jam and toast. Nestlé has even produced a squeeze bottle similar to Smucker's jam squeeze bottles for this very purpose. In New Orleans, it is commonly used as a topping on top of a chocolate or similar cream flavor snowball. In Scotland, it is mixed with sugar and some butter and baked to form a popular, sweet candy called Tablet (confectionery) or Swiss-Milk-Tablet. In some parts of the Southern U.S., condensed milk is a key ingredient in lemon icebox pie, a sort of cream pie. In the Philippines, condensed milk is mixed with some evaporated milk and eggs, spooned into shallow metal containers over liquid caramelised sugar, then steamed to make a stiffer and more filling version of crème brulée known as leche flan. During the communism era in Poland it was common to boil a can of condensed milk in water for about 2 hours. The resulting product is called kaymak - sweet semiliquid substance which can be used as a cake icing or put between dry wafers. It is less common nowadays but recently some manufactures of condensed milk introduced canned ready-made kaymak.

History




In 1852, a young dairy farmer named Gail Borden was on a ship headed home to the United States from the Great Exhibition in London. When rough seas made the cows on board so seasick that they could not be milked, infant passengers began to go hungry. Borden wondered how milk could be processed and packaged so that it would not go bad. This was a problem not only on long ocean voyages but on land, as well, because at the time, milk was shipped in unsanitary oak barrels and spoiled quickly. When Borden returned home, he began to experiment with raw milk, determining that it was 87% water. By boiling the water off the top of the milk in an airtight pan, Borden eventually obtained a condensed milk that resisted spoilage. On another trip, this time by train to Washington, DC, to apply for a patent for his new product, Borden met Jeremiah Milbank, a wealthy grocery whole-saler. Milbank was impressed with Borden's ideas and agreed to finance a condensed milk operation. In 1864, the first Eagle Brand Consolidated Milk production plant opened on the east branch of the Croton River in southeastern New York.
Borden's new product was not an unqualified success. In 1856, condensed milk was blamed for an outbreak of rickets in working-class children because it was made with skim milk, and therefore lacked fats and other nutrients. Others complained about its appearance and taste because they were accustomed to milk with a high water content and that had been whitened with the addition of chalk. In spite of this criticism, the idea of condensed milk caught on to the degree that Borden began to license other factories to produce it under his name.
The outbreak of the Civil War proved to be good for business when the Union Army ordered the condensed milk for its field rations. At the height of the war, Borden's Elgin, Illinois plant was annually producing 300,000 gallons of condensed milk.
To differentiate his own product from that of the licensed plants, Borden changed the name of his condensed milk to Eagle Brand. About this time, two American brothers, Charles A. and George H. Page, founded the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company in Switzerland. One of their employees, John Baptist Meyenberg, suggested that the company use a similar process but eliminate the addition of sugar to produce evaporated milk. Meyenberg's idea was rejected. Convinced that his idea held merit, Meyenberg quit the company and emigrated to the United States. By 1885, Meyenberg was producing the first commercial brand of evaporated milk at his Highland Park, Illinois plant, the Helvetica Milk Condensing Company.
In the late 1880s, Eldridge Amos Stuart, an Indiana grocer in El Paso, Texas, noted that milk was spoiling in the heat and causing illness in children. Stuart developed a method for processing canned, sterilized evaporated milk. In 1899, Stuart partnered with Meyenberg to supply Klondike gold miners with evaporated milk in 16-ounce cans.
An article on homogenization in the April 16,1904 issue of Scientific American had an impact on the concentrated milk industry, which employed the process long before fresh milk plants. Further improvements followed. In 1934, Meyenberg's company, now headquartered in St. Louis, Missouri, and renamed the Pet Milk Company, became the first to fortify its evaporated milk with Vitamin D. This was accomplished by the process of irradiation, developed in 1923 by Harry Steenbock, a chemist at the University of Wisconsin. In this process, the milk is exposed to ultraviolet light, which causes reactions to produce Vitamin D, enriching the milk.

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